Academic English Vocabulary: 400 Words for Writing

The words are not hard to understand. They are hard to use correctly.

400 cardsLast updated 2026-08-17

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Academic vocabulary fails in production, not comprehension. Every reader knows roughly what comprise, imply and significant mean, and every writer still gets them wrong: is comprised of instead of comprises, imply where infer belongs, significant used loosely in a paper that also reports statistical significance. The gap is never the definition. It is the word family, the preposition, and the neighbouring word that so often trips people up. This deck covers 400 words of academic English. Every card gives the meaning and part of speech, then one line of the thing that actually goes wrong — the plural of criterion, the preposition after contribute, the difference between effective and efficient — followed by a sentence in the register you are aiming for. Cards are tagged by function: research and method, argument and evidence, cause and change, quantity and comparison, structure and process, policy and society, linking and signalling, and academic writing itself. Import it and the deck joins your spaced-repetition schedule, and what stays in rotation is the set you can recognise but not yet write.

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What's inside

Showing 100 representative cards from the full 400-card deck.

Front	Back
analyse	to examine something in detail to understand it (verb). Word family: analysis, analytical, analyst. American spelling analyze. Example: The study analysed data from 400 households.
assess	to judge the value or quality of something (verb). Word family: assessment, assessor. Example: The report assesses the risk of flooding.
conduct	to carry out an activity (verb). Stress on the second syllable as a verb. Example: Researchers conducted interviews with fifty teachers.
data	facts and figures collected for analysis (noun). Treated as plural in formal writing: the data show. Example: The data were collected over three years.
evidence	information supporting a conclusion (noun). Uncountable: a piece of evidence, not an evidence. Example: There is little evidence for this claim.
identify	to recognise and name something (verb). Word family: identification, identifiable. Example: The survey identified three main barriers.
investigate	to examine systematically (verb). Word family: investigation, investigator. Example: The paper investigates why the policy failed.
observe	to watch carefully; to notice (verb). Word family: observation, observable. Example: Researchers observed the same pattern in both groups.
survey	a study collecting information from many people (noun). Also a verb: to survey households. Example: The survey was completed by 1,200 respondents.
validity	the extent to which something is well founded (noun). Word family: valid, validate. Example: The validity of the measure has been questioned.
assert	to state confidently (verb). Often implies the claim still needs support. Example: He asserts that the trend will continue.
counter	to respond in opposition (verb). Also a noun: a counter to that objection. Example: She counters this objection in the final chapter.
dispute	to question the truth of (verb). Also a noun: a dispute over funding. Example: Few scholars dispute the basic timeline.
imply	to suggest without stating directly (verb). The speaker implies; the listener infers. Example: The wording implies that the change is temporary.
propose	to put forward for consideration (verb). Word family: proposal, proposition. Example: The paper proposes a new classification.
suggest	to indicate as possible (verb). The standard hedge in reporting results. Example: The evidence suggests a link, though not a strong one.
cause	something that produces an effect (noun). Distinguish from correlation. Example: Poverty is a cause, not merely a correlate.
correlation	a mutual relationship between two things (noun). Correlation is not causation; the phrase is standard. Example: There is a strong correlation between the two.
generate	to produce (verb). Word family: generation, generator. Example: The reform generated considerable opposition.
influence	the power to affect something (noun). Also a verb. Takes on as a verb: influence on behaviour. Example: Media coverage had a clear influence on opinion.
result in	to cause (verb). Result in a cause; result from an effect. Example: The delay resulted in higher costs.
alter	to change (verb). Slightly more formal than change. Example: The findings alter our understanding of the period.
evolve	to develop gradually (verb). Word family: evolution, evolutionary. Example: The role of the institution evolved over time.
shift	a change in position or attitude (noun). Also a verb. Takes in: a shift in emphasis. Example: There has been a shift in public opinion.
approximately	roughly (adverb). More formal than about in academic writing. Example: Approximately 40 per cent responded.
consist of	to be made up of (verb). Never used in the passive. Example: The sample consists of two equal groups.
distribution	the way something is spread out (noun). Word family: distribute, distributive. Example: The distribution of income has become more uneven.
majority	more than half (noun). Takes a plural verb when referring to people. Example: The majority of respondents were under thirty.
significant	important; statistically meaningful (adjective). In statistics it has a precise technical meaning. Example: The difference was statistically significant.
aggregate	a total formed from separate parts (noun). Common collocation: in aggregate. Example: In aggregate, the sector grew by four per cent.
magnitude	the size or importance of something (noun). Common collocation: the magnitude of the effect. Example: The magnitude of the change surprised the authors.
maximise	to make as large as possible (verb). American spelling maximize. Example: The design maximises natural light.
disparity	a large difference (noun). Common collocation: a disparity between. Example: The disparity between regions has widened.
uniform	the same throughout (adjective). Word family: uniformly, uniformity. Example: Conditions were kept uniform across trials.
hierarchy	a system ranked by level (noun). Word family: hierarchical. Example: The organisation has a flat hierarchy.
stage	a point in a process (noun). Common collocation: at this stage. Example: At this stage the results are provisional.
incorporate	to include as part of a whole (verb). Word family: incorporation. Example: The revised model incorporates regional data.
facilitate	to make easier (verb). Word family: facilitation, facilitator. Example: Technology facilitates remote collaboration.
inhibit	to prevent or slow (verb). Word family: inhibition, inhibitor. Example: High costs inhibit small firms from entering.
regulate	to control by rules (verb). Word family: regulation, regulatory. Example: The industry is heavily regulated.
policy	a course of action adopted by an organisation (noun). Uncountable when general: government policy. Example: The policy was reversed within a year.
institution	an established organisation (noun). Word family: institutional. Example: Public institutions lost funding in that period.
welfare	the health and wellbeing of people (noun). Common collocation: the welfare state. Example: Welfare provision varies widely between countries.
poverty	the state of being extremely poor (noun). Common collocation: relative poverty. Example: Child poverty fell slightly in 2019.
migration	movement of people between places (noun). Word family: migrate, migrant. Example: Internal migration accelerated after the war.
gender	social and cultural aspects of sex (noun). Distinguish from biological sex in academic use. Example: The gender gap in pay has narrowed slowly.
discourse	written or spoken communication on a topic (noun). Common collocation: public discourse. Example: The term entered public discourse in the 1990s.
perspective	a particular way of viewing something (noun). Takes on: a perspective on the issue. Example: From an economic perspective the case is weaker.
reliability	the extent to which a measure is consistent (noun). Distinguish from validity. Example: The reliability of self-reported data is limited.
qualitative	concerned with qualities rather than numbers (adjective). Contrasted with quantitative. Example: The study used qualitative interviews.
subsequent	coming after (adjective). Word family: subsequently. Example: Subsequent studies confirmed the pattern.
relevant	closely connected to the matter (adjective). Takes to: relevant to the question. Example: Only two of the studies are directly relevant.
ambiguous	open to more than one interpretation (adjective). Word family: ambiguity. Example: The wording of the question was ambiguous.
consistent	in agreement; unchanging (adjective). Takes with: consistent with earlier work. Example: The result is consistent with the hypothesis.
questionable	open to doubt (adjective). Word family: question, unquestionable. Example: The reliability of the data is questionable.
predominant	most common or important (adjective). Word family: predominantly. Example: Agriculture was the predominant activity.
integral	essential to completeness (adjective). Takes to: integral to the design. Example: Fieldwork was integral to the project.
albeit	although (conjunction). Formal; introduces a concession phrase. Example: Growth continued, albeit at a slower rate.
consequently	as a result (adverb). Common sentence opener in academic writing. Example: Consequently, the trial was halted.
hence	for this reason (adverb). More formal than so. Example: The data are incomplete, hence the wide range.
nevertheless	in spite of that (adverb). Concedes a point before continuing. Example: The evidence is thin; nevertheless the idea persists.
thereby	by that means (adverb). Usually followed by a participle. Example: Costs were cut, thereby freeing funds for training.
whereby	by which (adverb). Introduces a method or arrangement. Example: A system whereby costs are shared was adopted.
with respect to	concerning (phrase). Formal alternative to about. Example: With respect to funding, no decision has been made.
by contrast	in comparison (phrase). Signals an opposing case. Example: By contrast, the southern region saw no change.
provided that	on condition that (conjunction). Introduces a condition. Example: The method works provided that the sample is random.
feasible	possible to do (adjective). Word family: feasibility. Example: A national rollout is not currently feasible.
efficient	achieving results without waste (adjective). Distinguish from effective. Example: The new process is more efficient but less accurate.
detrimental	causing harm (adjective). Takes to: detrimental to health. Example: Long hours are detrimental to performance.
apparent	seeming; clearly visible (adjective). Two senses; context decides which is meant. Example: It soon became apparent that the model was wrong.
subtle	slight and hard to detect (adjective). Word family: subtlety. Example: The difference is subtle but consistent.
representative	typical of a larger group (adjective). Common collocation: a representative sample. Example: The panel was not representative of the population.
aforementioned	mentioned earlier (adjective). Formal; use sparingly. Example: The aforementioned studies used different measures.
substantially	to a large degree (adverb). Word family: substantial. Example: Costs rose substantially after 2020.
allegedly	as claimed but not proven (adverb). Common in reporting disputed claims. Example: The figures were allegedly revised after publication.
simultaneously	at the same time (adverb). Word family: simultaneous. Example: Both changes occurred simultaneously.
address	to deal with a problem (verb). A common academic sense beyond speaking to someone. Example: The paper does not address the funding question.
clarify	to make clearer (verb). Word family: clarification, clarity. Example: The author clarifies the term in a footnote.
classify	to arrange into classes (verb). Word family: classification. Example: Species are classified by their genetic profile.
attribute (noun)	a quality or feature (noun). Stress on the first syllable as a noun. Example: Reliability is the most valued attribute.
manuscript	a paper submitted for publication (noun). Common in the sciences. Example: The manuscript was returned with comments.
publish	to make available in print or online (verb). Word family: publication. Example: The findings were published last year.
reinforce	to strengthen (verb). Common with view, argument, pattern. Example: The findings reinforce earlier conclusions.
speculate	to form a theory without firm evidence (verb). Word family: speculation, speculative. Example: The authors speculate about possible mechanisms.
pertain	to be relevant (verb). Takes to: pertaining to the case. Example: The rule pertains only to registered members.
accumulate	to gather over time (verb). Word family: accumulation. Example: Evidence has accumulated steadily since 2015.
peak	to reach the highest point (verb). Also a noun. Example: Numbers peaked in 2008 and then fell.
exacerbate	to make worse (verb). Formal; common with problem, tension. Example: The delay exacerbated an already difficult situation.
prevail	to be widespread; to win out (verb). Word family: prevailing, prevalence. Example: The prevailing view has changed since then.
conform	to behave according to rules or norms (verb). Takes to: conform to the pattern. Example: The results conform to the predicted pattern.
appoint	to assign to a position (verb). Word family: appointment. Example: A new director was appointed in June.
allocate resources	to distribute means among competing uses (phrase). A standard collocation in economics writing. Example: Governments must allocate resources under constraint.
infrastructure	basic physical systems of a country (noun). Uncountable. Example: Investment in infrastructure was cut sharply.
predict	to say what will happen (verb). Word family: prediction, predictor. Example: The model predicts a modest recovery.
approximate	to be close to (verb). Also an adjective with different pronunciation. Example: The curve approximates a straight line.
indicator	a measure that shows a condition (noun). Common collocation: a leading indicator. Example: Unemployment is a lagging indicator.
confront	to face a difficulty directly (verb). Word family: confrontation, confrontational. Example: The sector confronts three simultaneous pressures.
obstacle	something blocking progress (noun). Takes to: an obstacle to reform. Example: Cost remains the principal obstacle to adoption.
contingent	depending on something else (adjective). Takes on: contingent on funding. Example: Further work is contingent on renewed funding.
preliminary stage	the first part of a longer process (phrase). A standard collocation in research writing. Example: The preliminary stage lasted three months.

Frequently asked

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Yes. Imported cards are yours: you can edit both sides, delete cards you do not need, change tags, and move cards to another deck.

What is in the deck?

73 on research and method, 71 on argument and evidence, 54 on quantity and comparison, 45 on policy and society, 43 on cause and change, 42 on structure and process, 37 on linking and signalling, 22 on academic writing itself and 13 on problems and limitations, 400 in total. One word per card, so nothing appears twice.

Why does each card include a usage note?

Because the definition is rarely what goes wrong. Criteria is a plural, contribute takes to, the whole comprises the parts and is never comprised of them, and a writer who implies is not a reader who infers. Those are the details that mark writing as non-academic, and they are what the note on each card carries.

Is this useful for IELTS and TOEFL?

Yes, particularly for the writing and speaking tasks, where examiners look for range and accuracy rather than rare words. The linking and signalling group maps directly onto the discourse markers those rubrics reward, and the hedging words — suggest, indicate, tentative, arguably — are how you make a claim you can defend.

British or American spelling?

British spellings appear on the front, with the American variant named in the note wherever the two differ. Both are accepted in academic writing as long as you are consistent, so pick one and let the notes remind you which forms belong together.